Heinrich Mann, the elder brother of Thomas Mann, and in his own right one of the most significant German writers of the 20th century, died in exile in California 75 years ago, on March 11, 1950. His literary work, marked by deep engagement with social justice and political change, remains relevant today. Mann’s writing is characterized by sharp criticism of the prevailing social conditions of his time, particularly the power structures of the Wilhelmine Empire. His novels are not only literary masterpieces but also capture and critically reflect the spirit of an era.
The founding of the German Empire in 1871 by Bismarck marked the beginning of an authoritarian nation-state, dominated by militarism, obedience to authority, and nationalist-chauvinistic expansion under Prussian leadership. This state represented the interests of the ruling classes—the landed aristocracy and the bourgeoisie—who secured their power through repression and chauvinism. After 1890, under Kaiser Wilhelm II, the empire transformed into an aggressive imperialist power: Global politics and the pursuit of a “place in the sun” reflected the internal contradictions of capitalism, which now demanded global expansion. Massive military armament and the drive for dominance increasingly steered the country toward confrontation, laying the groundwork for World War I.
Der Untertan, Heinrich Mann’s The Loyal Subject (1914, published in English by the Continuum Publishing Company, 1998) reflects the spirit of Wilhelmine Germany and also addresses the role of the bourgeoisie, which adapted to and supported the ruling structures. The Loyal Subject is therefore not only a literary reckoning with Wilhelmine Germany but also a sharp analysis of class relations and the ideological mechanisms that upheld rising imperialism.
Mann’s novels, which form the Trilogy of the Empire—The Loyal Subject (1914/1918), Die Armen (The Poor, 1917), and Der Kopf (The Head, 1925)—are milestones of the political novel. They derive their perspective from the foreseeable and necessary overthrow of the existing regime, which Mann sought to promote through his work. His novels deeply engage with the political and social developments of his time, which ultimately led to the revolution of 1918.
The Loyal Subject, Heinrich Mann’s most famous novel, is not only a literary masterpiece but also one of the most astute social analyses of Wilhelmine Germany. The novel presents a satirical, exaggerated depiction of the German citizen under Wilhelm II’s rule and exposes the mechanisms of power, submissiveness, and opportunism that permeated the empire. At the center is the character of Diederich Hessling, an opportunistic, power-hungry, and simultaneously weak individual who evolves from a fearful young person into a ruthless industrialist and local politician. Hessling embodies the type of submissive subject who unconditionally submits to ruling authorities while simultaneously striving for power to oppress others.
Raised in an authoritarian household by a punishing father, Hessling encounters a bellicose grammar school teacher who proudly boasts of ruthless pillaging and the murder of women and children during the Franco-Prussian War of 1870-71. This teacher instills irrational hatred toward other nations in his students and prepares them for future wars of conquest. Already at this stage, it becomes evident how deeply entrenched great-power chauvinism was within broad segments of the German bourgeoisie at the dawn of the imperialist era. Furthermore, students’ self-respect is systematically broken, a process that continues rigorously in the military.
The novel is set in the fictional provincial town of Netzig and depicts the political and economic developments that shaped societal life in the 1890s. Heinrich Mann skillfully weaves historical events, such as the street riots of February 1892, the centennial celebration of the Wars of Liberation in 1813, and the Zabern Affair (a political scandal involving military repression against civilians in Alsace-Lorraine), into the narrative to create a vivid portrait of the era. Through this historical grounding, he condenses the social and political developments of the empire into a poetic image while simultaneously satirizing them.
The author parodies the Bildungsroman (novel of education or coming of age). However, Hessling’s “education” starkly contrasts with the liberal and humanistic ideals traditionally associated with the genre. Instead of leading to self-discovery and moral maturity, Hessling’s formation turns him into a mindless tool of the ruling power structures through self-denial. His upbringing seeks to eradicate all “soft spots” in his character, molding him into a “tough” man who unconditionally submits to authority and becomes part of the apparatus of oppression. This dehumanization is particularly evident in Hessling’s interactions with his environment: He speaks in empty phrases, his personality entirely overshadowed by the rhetoric of reactionary public opinion. He embodies the “spirit of the times”—a spirit shaped by submission, lust for power, and corruption.
Hessling’s relationship with women also reflects dominance, insecurity, and opportunism. Love or the notion of an equal partner never crosses his mind. Shaped by the model of his intimidated mother, his relationships are characterized by the exercise of power, fear, and conformity to societal expectations. Some female characters exhibit resistance, yet ultimately succumb to overwhelming societal pressures. Through this lens, Hessling’s increasing emotional coldness and human emptiness become tangible. Even on this level, the necessity of social upheaval is made clear.
Heinrich Mann uses the character of Diederich Hessling to satirically expose the bourgeois-aristocratic ideology of his time. By placing authentic slogans like “a place in the sun” or “glorious days” in Hessling’s mouth, he reveals how hollow and cynical these phrases are in reality. Hessling is a product of his time, a man who rises within the power networks of business, the military, bureaucracy, and the church by sacrificing his personal dignity and responsibility. He is a “nothing” who gains influence only through submission and conformity to the ruling structures. This characterization precisely captures the essence of the imperialist bourgeoisie, which dehumanizes itself in its greed for power and wealth. Hessling is surrounded by mirror images of himself, all sharing the same alienated character.
Another key element of the novel is the confrontation between the declining liberal bourgeoisie and the new imperialist type. The figure of old Buck, who adheres to ideals of education, integrity, and personal responsibility, stands in stark contrast to Hessling. Buck represents a bygone era in which individuals still maintained a meaningful relationship with society. However, these ideals have lost their validity in an increasingly imperialist reality. Hessling, the new bourgeois type, destroys Buck and, with him, the last remnants of a humanistic tradition. Buck’s downfall takes on tragic dimensions—he is annihilated by a new order that ruthlessly eradicates everything human.
Heinrich Mann’s view of society, however, was not free of contradictions. His perspective led him to see the emerging society as dominated by a single mindset that permeated all aspects of life. This ultimately undifferentiated viewpoint also shaped his depiction of social democracy, which he regarded as part of the capitalist world of subjugation. The figure of the labor leader, Napoleon Fischer, Hessling’s antagonist, is an example of this somewhat oversimplifying perspective. Fischer fails, despite his insights into the class struggle and his commitment to democratic rights, because of his opportunism.
Regardless of these limitations, Heinrich Mann’s work remains of great significance. His novels are not only literary achievements of a high order, but also highlight the necessity of a fundamental change in living conditions. Mann’s optimism, which manifests in hope for a revolutionary upheaval, gives his works a sense of open-ended perspective. In The Loyal Subject, he symbolically hints at this upheaval when a thunderstorm disrupts an establishment celebration at the end of the novel, appearing like a rehearsal for the coming revolution. The storm, coming from the direction “where he assumed the masses to be,” foreshadows the coming uprising: “The attempt by nature to overthrow the existing authority had been an attempt with inadequate means.” The thunderstorm becomes a hopeful symbol of the inevitability of a revolution that will sweep the regime away.
The Loyal Subject is therefore not only a pointed artistic attack on the bourgeois-aristocratic power structures but also a work of great historical and political depth. Heinrich Mann succeeds in condensing the central economic-political processes of his time into a literary image, while also exposing the moral corruption of the system. The novel remains a significant work, critically reflecting on the past, while also raising contemporary questions about power, subjugation, and resistance. As a literary work of significance, it furthermore points to the responsibility of artists to expose power relations and their effects on people, thereby working toward change.
Heinrich Mann expressed his views on the relationship between art and politics in his famous Zola essay of 1915: “To love the truth: otherwise, no one becomes great. Love all its powers—science, labor, democracy: this great, working humanity that wants to rise, away from the pretenses and injustices of the past. To feel oneself as one of them, and nothing else; to stand in life as everyone else, then one can portray what everyone else experiences. Only do not think oneself special or apart; participate as one among many in the great inquiry into the century, into modern life.”
Further down in the same essay, Mann writes almost prophetically, a year into World War I: “An empire that has been based solely on violence and not on freedom, justice, and truth, an empire where only orders are given and obeyed, profits are made and people exploited, but never respected, cannot triumph, no matter how great its power.”
Such prescient words proved true in two world wars originating from German soil and hold validity for all imperialist wars. Heinrich Mann’s literary legacy urges a critical examination of how militarism and imperialism systematically distort and damage individuals’ psyches, advocating for a humane society. On the occasion of his 75th death anniversary, it is worth rediscovering his work and revisiting the questions of justice, reason, and human dignity contained within it. Heinrich Mann remains an author whose voice is still relevant today.
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